Definition and Examples of Academic Prose Styles

Definition and Examples of Academic Prose Styles Academese is an informal, pejorative term for the specialized language (or jargon) used in some scholarly writing and speech. Bryan Garner notes that academese is characteristic of academicians who are writing for a highly specialized but limited audience, or who have a limited grasp of how to make their arguments clearly and succinctly (Garners Modern American Usage, 2016). The Tameri Guide for Writers  defines academese as an artificial form of communication commonly used in institutes of higher education designed to make small, irrelevant ideas appear important and original. Proficiency in academese is achieved when you begin inventing your own words and no one can understand what you are writing. Examples and Observations Dale was not a good writer. Trust me on this. . . . [I]n training to be an academic, Dale was crippled by the need to write in academese. It is not a language formed by any human tongue, and few, if any, academics survive the degradation of it to move on to actual prose.(Dan Simmons, A Winter Haunting. William Morrow, 2002)There is original thought here, but the reader is immediately confronted by the language academics apparently use to communicate with one another. Sometimes it reads like a translation from the German, at others that they are merely trying to impress or indulging in a verbal cutting contest. Here are a few of the words you should be prepared to encounter: hermeneutics, commodified, contextualizing, conceptualize, hyperanimacy, taxonomic, metacritical, rhizome, perspectivizing, nomadology, indexical, polysemy, auratic, reification, metonymic, synecdoche, biodegradability, interstitial, valorize, diegetic, allegoresis, grammatology, oracy, centripetality, and esempla stic.(Stanley Dance in a review of two anthologies of jazz studies; quoted by George E. Lewis in A Power Stronger Than Itself. University of Chicago Press, 2008) Vernacular Equivalents to Academese[E]ffective academic writing tends to be bilingual (or diglossial), making its point in Academese and then making it again in the vernacular, a repetition that, interestingly, alters the meaning. Here is an example of such bilingualism from a review of a book on evolutionary biology by a professor of ecology and evolution, Jerry A. Coyne. Coyne is explaining the theory that males are biologically wired to compete for females. Coyne makes his point both in Academese, which I italicize, and in the vernacular, staging a dialogue in the text between the writers (and the readers) academic self and his lay self: It is this internecine male competitiveness that is assumed to have driven not only the evolution of increased male body size (on average, bigger is better in a physical contest), but also of hormonally mediated male aggression (there is no use being the biggest guy on the block if you are a wallflower). It is this type of bridge discourse that en ables nonspecialists and students to cross from their lay discourse to academic discourse and back. . . .In providing a vernacular equivalent of their Academese, writers like Coyne install a self-checking device that forces them to make sure they are actually saying something. When we recast our point in vernacular terms, we do not simply throw out a sop to the nonspecialist reader, much less dumb ourselves down. Rather we let our point speak itself better than it knows, to come out of the closet in the voice of the skeptical reader.(Gerald Graff, Clueless in Academe: How Schooling Obscures the Life of the Mind. Yale University Press, 2003) If you cannot write about it so that anyone who buys the paper has a reasonable chance of understanding it, you dont understand it yourself.(Robert Zonka, quoted by Roger Ebert in Awake in the Dark. University of Chicago Press, 2006)Varieties of AcademeseCritics outside the academy tend to assume that academese is one thing, public discourse another. But in fact there are major differences of standards ranging from field to field: what constitutes evidence or valid argument, what questions are worth asking, what choices of style will work or even be understood, which authorities can be trusted, how much eloquence is permitted.(Wayne C. Booth, The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication. Blackwell, 2004)Lionel Trilling on the Language of Non-ThoughtA specter haunts our cultureit is that people will eventually be unable to say, They fell in love and married, let alone understand the language of Romeo and Juliet, but will as a matter of course say Their libidinal imp ulses being reciprocal, they activated their individual erotic drives and integrated them within the same frame of reference.Now this is not the language of abstract thought or of any kind of thought. It is the language of non-thought. . . . There can be no doubt whatever that it constitutes a threat to the emotions and thus to life itself.(Lionel Trilling, The Meaning of a Literary Idea. The Liberal Imagination: Essays on Literature and Society, 1950) Passive Voice in AcademeseIf your style has been corrupted by long exposure to academese or business English, you may need to worry about the passive. Make sure it hasnt seeded itself where it doesnt belong. If it has, root it out as needed. Where it does belong, I think we ought to use it freely. It is one of the lovely versatilities of the verb.(Ursula K. Le Guin, Steering the Craft. Eighth Mountain Press, 1998) Pronunciation: a-KAD-a-MEEZ Also see: Academic WritingBafflegabGobbledygookLanguage at  -ese: Academese, Legalese, and Other Species of GobbledygookRegisterStyleUnder the Flapdoodle Tree: Doublespeak, Soft Language, and GobbledygookVerbiageVerbosity

5 Pillars of Archaeological Method

5 Pillars of Archaeological Method I was horrified at hearing of the rough shoveling out of the contents and protested that the earth ought to be pared away inch by inch to see all that was in it, and how it lay. WM Flinders Petrie, describing how he felt at eight years of age, on seeing the excavation of a Roman villa. Between 1860 and the turn of the century, five basic pillars of scientific archaeology were enunciated: the ever growing importance of stratigraphic excavation; the significance of the small find and plain artifact; the diligent use of field notes, photography and plan maps to record excavation processes; the publication of results; and the rudiments of cooperative excavation and indigenous rights. The Big Dig Undoubtedly the first move in all of these directions included the invention of the big dig. Up until that point, most excavations were haphazard, driven by the recovery of single artifacts, generally for private or state museums. But when Italian archaeologist Guiseppe Fiorelli [1823-1896] took over the excavations at Pompeii in 1860, he began excavating entire room blocks, keeping track of stratigraphic layers, and preserving many features in place. Fiorelli believed that the art and artifacts were of secondary importance to the real purpose for excavating Pompeiito learn about the city itself and all its inhabitants, rich and poor. And, most critical for the growth of the discipline, Fiorelli began a school for archaeological methods, passing along his strategies to Italians and foreigners alike. It cant be said that Fiorelli invented the concept of the big dig. German archaeologist Ernst Curtius [1814-1896] had been attempting to amass funds for an extensive excavation since 1852, and by 1875 began excavating at Olympia. Like many sites in the classical world, the Greek site of Olympia had been the subject of much interest, especially its statuary, which found its way into museums all over Europe. When Curtius came to work at Olympia, it was under the terms of a negotiated deal between the German and Greek governments. None of the artifacts would leave Greece (except for duplicates). A small museum would be built on the grounds. And the German government could recoup the costs of the big dig by selling reproductions. The costs were indeed horrific, and German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was forced to terminate the excavations in 1880, but the seeds of cooperative scientific investigations had been planted. So had the seeds of political influence in archaeology, which were to profoundly affect the young science during the early years of the 20th century. Scientific Methods The real increases in techniques and methodology of what we think of as modern archaeology were primarily the work of three Europeans: Schliemann, Pitt-Rivers, and Petrie. Although Heinrich Schliemanns [1822-1890] early techniques are today often disparaged as not much better than a treasure-hunter, by the latter years of his work at the site of Troy, he took on a German assistant, Wilhelm DÃ ¶rpfeld [1853-1940], who had worked at Olympia with Curtius. DÃ ¶rpfelds influence on Schliemann led to refinements in his technique and, by the end of his career, Schliemann carefully recorded his excavations, preserved the ordinary along with the extraordinary, and was prompt about publishing his reports. A military man who spent a great deal of his early career studying the improvement of British fire-arms, Augustus Henry Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers [1827-1900] brought military precision and rigor to his archaeological excavations. He spent a not-inconsiderable inheritance building the first extensive comparative artifact collection, including contemporary ethnographic materials. His collection was decidedly not for beautys sake; as he quoted T.H. Huxley: The word importance ought to be struck out of scientific dictionaries; that which is important is that which is persistent. Chronological Methods William Matthew Flinders Petrie [1853-1942], known most for the dating technique he invented known as seriation or sequence dating, also held high standards of excavation technique. Petrie recognized the inherent problems with large excavations, and assiduously planned them out ahead of time. A generation younger than Schliemann and Pitt-Rivers, Petrie was able to apply the basics of stratigraphic excavation and comparative artifact analysis to his own work. He synchronized the occupation levels at Tell el-Hesi with Egyptian dynastic data, and was able to successfully develop an absolute chronology for sixty feet of occupational debris. Petrie, like Schliemann and Pitt-Rivers, published his excavation findings in detail. While the revolutionary concepts of archaeological technique advocated by these scholars gained acceptance slowly around the world, there is no doubt that without them, it would have been a much longer wait. Sources A bibliography of the history of archaeology has been assembled for this project. History of Archaeology Part 1: The First ArchaeologistsPart 2: The Effects of the EnlightenmentPart 3: Is the Bible Fact or Fiction?Part 4: The Astounding Effects of Orderly MenPart 5: The Five Pillars of Archaeological Method Bibliography

Bilingualism in Politics in the United States Essay

Bilingualism in Politics in the United States - Essay Example Some people argue that multilingualism in politics will create confusion among the people because voting is used to determine senate members and the president. This poses a threat to the American presidential candidates because the Hispanic vote is influential. Presidential candidates have been keen to appeal to the Hispanic voters because they are concentrated in Texas, Illinois, California, Florida and New York, the key states carrying more than half votes required to win the presidency (Schaefer, 2006). Allowing multilingualism in politics may create the impression that illegal immigrants have the right to vote hence threatening the vote power of the natives. Some citizens however support multilingualism and political candidates who support it like for example president Obama. With regard to laws, the natives feel that the US state and federal laws eventually should change so as to reflect specific privileges accorded to the immigrants (Schaefer, 2006). However, a large section of the Hispanics cannot vote because they have not attained US citizenship Hispanic communities have different political organizations reflecting their diverse needs.

The Onion News Network Reader Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Onion News Network Reader Response - Essay Example Such range of awareness has been evoked by such satirical stories highlighted like that of the Japanese tsunami relief, which was followed by serious comments from its viewers. On the other hand, satire news exposes the rot in the government as well as the shortcomings witnessed in most public offices. In the absence of such arenas, the failures and contradictions in many institutions would go unnoticed. Such has been the advocacy of such programs like The Daily Show, which highlights recent ideas and topics of issues that inform the society. Viewers who highly understand the aspect of humor in the satirical news are able to understand situations better than the way they are given in the normal news broadcasts. In this light, the shows of Colbert Report have provided useful insights to its viewers (Amarasingam 62). For example, he named a Hungarian bridge after himself in one of the shows, a silly but insightful portray of the political situation at the

Applied Linguistics - 1 Essay Example for Free

Applied Linguistics 1 Essay Language in literature is used to create alternatives to the real world. In doing so, the precise choice and ordering of words is very important. It not only creates a substitute world for us but also determines our attitude to its inhabitants and the events that take place there. This dependence upon precise wording is why a literary text loses so much in paraphrase or translation. However, despite this importance of precise wording, the meanings of literary works are often disturbingly imprecise. Apparently, the linguistics choices in literature are not the concern of applied linguistics. It does not have the same kind of direct social and economic consequences as language education policy, or the spread of English as lingua franca. Yet, it is wrong to decrease the value of the impact and importance of literature. It reflects our individual and social identities, embodies and criticizes the values of the society from which it comes, and it also has an important role to play in education. And because it is made fully from language, it has something to do applied linguistics. Literary stylistics :- Linguistic analysis can describe and analyze the language of a literary text but this is not an applied linguistic activity. However, It begins to move in that direction when linguistic choices are linked to their effects upon the reader. This is the attempt of literary stylistics. It is not in itself applied linguistics as it does not involve any practical decision making, but it is an important resource for the powerful and persuasive uses of language in general. It raises awareness of the importance of precise wording in addition to showing that there are more things in language use than the literal meaning of the words. Literary analysis cannot be brief in order to attain justice to its complex subject-matter. Stylistic analyses tend to highlight three related aspects of literary language: its deviation from the norms of everyday language use; its patterning of linguistic units to create rhythms, rhymes, and parallel constructions; and the ways in which the form of the words chosen seems to  intensify the meaning. These features of language use are not exclusive to literature. They characterize other highly valued uses of language such as prayer, song, and rhetoric. Generally, these features and other similar ones occur in emotive uses of language in society at large, whether in commercial, political, or interpersonal communication. Stylistic analyses can investigate the link between the forms of these language uses and their social and psychological power. If such analysis is used to discuss and reveal manipulation, it then becomes part of an applied linguistic process. Language and persuasion :- As language is used to tell the truth, it can also be used to distort facts, or to persuade people to take a particular stance towards them. Literary language partakes of this persuasive power. It manipulates our feelings and thoughts in ways which we accept happily. Other uses of language are unacceptable, seeking to control and influence our ideas in the service of some political or commercial interest. There are a big number of urgent issues in which language is used for manipulation such as; advertising, science, journals, even telephone operators speak from learned scripts. Applied linguistics should help understanding such issues. This is not only because the power of words is naturally interesting, but also because there are decisions to be made, often with far-reaching consequences for health, welfare, and success. Understanding linguistic techniques of persuasion can improve our ability to make rational judgments on which decisions making depends. Critical Discourse Analysis ( CDA ) :-  In fact, in any communication, there is selection and omission of information. For example, newspaper editors must choose which events to cover, how much space to give to each, and which facts to emphasize or omit. However, one cannot report any event or situation without selecting some facts in preference to others. But the selection reflects the values of the writer and the view of the world which he or she wishes to encourage in their readers. These matters are already apparent to the reader even without any specialize knowledge of language. What is more importance and interest to applied linguists is the presentation of the same facts in ways which, although telling the truth, affect the reader’s attitude. In literary texts, the wording is everything. For example, in the opening scenes of Macbeth, lady Macbeth says â€Å"what’s done is done†, and at the end in her lament she says â€Å"what’s done cannot be undone†. The literal meaning might be the same, but the effect is very different. The analysis of such details can be made to increase the people’s ability to read and listen critically, and to resist being manipulated by what is said. The analysis of such language and its effects is known as critical linguistics. When it is studied in a larger social context, it comes to be known as Critical Discourse Analysis ( CDA ). Another area of interest to applied linguistics is patterns of grammatical choice. For example, there are constructions which allow a speaker or writer not to mention the agent. Two strategies allow this to happen. One is passivization, the favoring of passive constructions over active ones. The other is nominalization, when actions and processes are referred to by nouns without mentioning the actual doers. The techniques can make an action seem certain and impersonal. The work of CDA specialists is of great social importance. Yet, they have the challenge of communicating their specialized knowledge to the outside world. To do this, they have to move in two opposite directions: one towards obfuscation and the other towards a false clarity. Obfuscation is the failure to speak as clearly as possible. The language of law and bureaucracy are often used as examples. It is claimed that in this case clarity should be sacrificed to exactness. The other direction is described as conversationalization and the creation of synthetic personality. This is the tendency for communication to be presented in the form of a casual conversation in which the relationship between the participants is apparently equal and intimate. This presents the opposite danger from obfuscation, for it may make matters simple and imprecise. There is a problem with CDA analyses which has been noted by several applied linguists. They focus their attention too much with the writer while deal too much passively with the reader. Most texts are both formed and interpreted in many different ways. The process of composition is often more hasty and specific purpose affair. Readings also are different. In short, there is a danger of assuming that understanding a text is fully determined by the language used.

Riders to the Sea: The Sea as a Living Character :: essays research papers

Riders to the sea: The sea as a living character In the tragic contest that is the inspiring soul of the play â€Å" Riders to the sea†, the sea is a party ranged against the weak, inoffensive inmates of the peasant family of Maurya. The sea is indeed the most impressive character in the play, it is so intimately associated with human characters whose fate concerns us that it may be called, Fate personified. The peasant family, as of course all other people of the island, live all their lives in open view of the sea. Even little Nora is familiar with its ways, its ebb and flow, its behaviour in storm and calm and all that. They are familiar not only with its physical features and its various moods, but also with the image of the sea as a mighty demon which looms large and dark and mysterious before their minds. At the very opening of the play, the sea enters as a terrorizing living personality. The sea as a ‘character’ is never off the stage, nor is it for a moment off the mind of inmates of the cottages. How can they close their eyes or minds to it seeing that it has already swallowed four strong young sons of the family, and it is almost sure it has made an end of the fifth, Michael? The monster is never for a moment absent from the thoughts of the three women. Bartley too knows the risk and the chances. But he is manly enough to put forth courage to perform his duty by the family. He silently agrees with Cathleen when she rebukes the whimpering mother: â€Å"It’s the life of a young man to be going on the sea†, thereby bringing out the association of the sea with the life of the islanders. It is a demon whom the poor islanders have no means of shunning if they would. And that is the demon’s opportunity of exercising its free will. It is all along an unequal fight- the fight between the Evil in nature which is, as Hardy expounds in his tragic novels, the handmaiden of Fate or blind Chance, or inscrutable Destiny.

Human Trafficking Essay

Known as the â€Å"invisibles† or â€Å"modern-day slaves†, the human trafficking trade is the fastest growing criminal trade in the U.S. and one of the most profitable industries in the world. It is global in nature, existing throughout the world, with traffickers coercing men, women and children of all races and circumstances. Approximately 800,000 to 900,000 victims are trafficked every year of which 100,000 are reportedly children sold into the sex trade. The United States is estimated to have 200,000 slaves, living in our cities seemingly pursuing the American dream. It is easy to understand why this trade is growing so rapidly if you look at our basic human nature and market conditions. Traffikers coerce their victims by promising them whatever they desire – be it, a trip to the US, education for their kids, an escape from their families. In return, the victims are placed into servitude as household domestics, escorts, or laborers at small businesses. Victims are the cheap labor needed to drive the market and the traffickers are the owners making all the payments and profits. Sometimes the most innocent of situations can lead into this trade. One of the stories from the National Human Trafficking Resource Center hotline tells how a girl, sixteen years old, met a man at her local mall who offered her a job at a restaurant. This seems like a plausible occurrence right? Well, it wasn’t. Instead of waiting tables and taking orders, she was forced to sell sex in a hotel room. So, what can I do as an average American teen presumably untouched by this horrible slavery? After all, I am very aware of stranger dangers and I don’t live in a third world country. Well. there are many easy ways to make an impact. You can encourage local newspapers, magazines and television  stations to focus on this topic. You can go and volunteer with organizations trying to impose stiffer penalties on traffikers. It’s even as easy as keeping an eye out in your everyday life – it exists all around us, open your eyes and ask yourself†¦what is wrong with this picture? Maybe the best advice I can give is to look at this from our Catholic values perspective – where is my compassion for people in need and the courage to challenge unfair practices. What does it say about me as a human if I allow a ten year old girl to work in a brothel? And what about Maria, the maid next door, who never leaves the house and works till 10 every night, does she not deserve the same freedoms as I? Yes, it is probably easier to ignore or choose not to engage, but where does that leave our humanity? To really abolish these practices, we have to care and question and be accountable. Human trafficking is wrong and we as the future generation of America need to step up and make a difference. People are not for sale. http://www.gracehavenhouse.org/how-to-help/24-fight-human-trafficking/